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welcome to space news fromthe electric universe brought to you by thethunderbolts projectâ„¢ at thunderbolts.info the electric universe theoryhas laid the foundations for an entirely new understandingof planetary geology. for decades, “experimentalistsâ€,using electrical discharges, have reproduced many familiargeological features, including types of crater forms that havelong proved puzzling to standard geology. these experiments may provideclues to past events
that the scientific mainstreamhas never entertained: high-energy electrical dischargesat an interplanetary scale. is it possible to integratethese new possibilities into a geology that also includesstandard geological processes? in this episode our guestbarry setterfield, the astronomer at the new hopeobservatory in grants pass oregon, outlines a number of guidelines forassessing whether craters on planets, moons and other bodies, were created byimpacts, or by electrical discharge machining, [barry] okay, while i was teaching astronomy atthe time and the issue of the origin of craters
on astronomical objects ofall sizes would come up; and we needed to resolve thisissue with the students. for example in the days before the apollomoon landings, and even for some time after, there's a strong body of opinion which held thatall such craters were the result of volcanism and that idea died slowly. it was replaced by the idea that allcraters are the result of impact, but then the results of electricalexperiments became available which solved problems that neitherimpact nor volcanism could; and i needed to do some crateringexperiments to distinguish
between the various types of craters andthen present these results to my students. volcanism usually has craters at the topsof mountains, unlike the moon and planets; the crater bottoms (they) go belowthe level of the surrounding plains. the volcanic craters that look likethose on the moon are called calderas. but the calderas are only circular if theground level has collapsed to a depression, or was the first major volcanicoutburst, and that's rather rare. the basic rule of thumb is thatthe rim material of lunar craters will approximately fill the pit. this is not usually the case of volcaniccalderas which have a different profile.
however, it is the case withthese other two methods. now venus is coveredwith 1600 volcanoes, mainly the shield-type of volcano whichis similar to those in hawaii, but they are morebroad and flat. radar surveys also show thatvenus has built 1,000 craters, similar to the moonand mercury and mars and these have a different character, sothey are formed by different processes. in addition the proliferation of craterson very small asteroids and dwarf planets, rules out volcanism as beingthe origin for those craters.
you can't have a volcanic hot magma centeredat such a small body; it doesn't work. so, there are features of both impact-basedand electrically-based crater formation that correspond with what we seeon objects in our solar system. both methods of craterformation describe some but not all of thefeatures that we observe. from the electrical and nowexperimental analysis that i've done it seems that we have a mix of bothelectrical and impact-based craters and these experiments seem to allowus to determine whether or not a particular crater mayhave formed by impact,
or by electrical dischargemachining, edm. craters can be formed by the impact of somesolid body such as an asteroid or a meteorite. as that body hits a planetarysurface, its velocity can range up to 45 miles persecond, which is pretty fast. this can’t be simulated inthe lab experimentally, since real impact will smash any materialfrom soft pumice to alloy steel. the material that we use in the labshould have no tensile strength. now there is such amaterial, and it is dust, and for practical reasons,we use cement dust.
it comes in uniform quality. and so, we have a layer of cement dust aboutsix inches thick, in a large box or a pan. and the meteorite is then a spoonfulof slightly compressed cement dust, dropped from a heightof about four feet. the resulting craters have a strikingresemblance to lunar craters generally. in the case of an actual impact, asthe impactor penetrates the surface, it pushes ahead of it anincreasingly large plug of matter that becomes intensely hotand under high pressure. eventually the pressures involved reachsomething like 200,000 atmospheres
and this stops the plug of intensely hotmaterial, and then a massive explosion occurs. it doesn't matter what directionthe meteorite comes from, the focus of the explosion formsa circular crater around that. the pressures involved form what iscalled shocked quartz in the the plug, which can’t be formedby volcanic processes. as the crater forms, the horizontalstrata at the rim of the crater becomes upturned and folded backon itself by the explosion. so, the strata will actually fold backin a reverse order, like a mirror image. these mirror-image strata sit beneaththe debris layer near the rim
and is an expected featureof many impact craters. the impact craters can exhibitrays made up of powdered material, thrown out from theexplosion center. these rays are bilaterally symmetrical, mirrorimage that is, not radially symmetrical. and this is typical ofexplosion pits on earth. the best example on the moon (of the rays),is the ray system of the crater tycho. impact craters often have radial ridges ofmaterial excavated from the explosion as well, and in addition there will be central peaksformed, for craters within a specific size range. that range depends on the gravitational pull ofthe planet or the moon that it is formed on.
lesser gravity means larger cratersfor explosions of the same energy. craters from impact willoften have terraced walls, as the rim wall slumps along the tangentialfault line set up by the explosion. this also set a radial fault line, going awayfrom the crater center for the same reason. the craters, the terraces,the central peaks the rays and the radiating ridges can bereproduced in the lab experiment. so can multiple and overlapping craters,especially if the impacting body breaks up just before hitting, eitherin reality or in the lab. and in fact, if you use aplaster-of-paris meteorite
instead of a cementdust meteorite, you can see what happens tothe meteorite as it impacts, and you find the meteorite fragments becomeconcentrated under the rim of the crater. in contrast to the characteristicfeatures of impacts, what are some of the tell-tale signsthat a crater was most likely formed by the process calledelectrical discharge machining? craters formed by this process ofelectric discharge machining, or edm, happen when there's a persistent electriccurrent in the lightning-like discharge which excavates or machinesout a circular pit.
this is being investigated indetail by lab experiments at, for example the vemasat laboratoriesby c.j. ransom and others. although electric discharge machining (edm)can produce craters that are bowl-shaped, many craters formed by edm processes havevertical walls and almost flat floors. this is rather like a number ofcraters on mercury and mars. there may or may not be a rim ofdebris around the edm crater pit, depending on local conditions, and becauseof behavior of electric currents, multiple or overlappingcraters can often occur. the second is scalloping ofthe crater edges or the wall.
where the current is high (and this issomething important too that i noted), where the current is high, the ground inthe region around the crater, or craters, is often discolored, and you can seethis in some locations on mars. one of the diagnostic features ofedm craters is that they can have a series of ejecta blankets on top of eachother that looks like a series of fluid flows as you get one blanket on top of theother, you get loops and scarps and so on. this happens as one layer of dustand debris from the machining gets added on top of anotherover a relatively short time. however, it's impossible for thissort of blanket to be formed by
more or less instantaneousexplosions from an impact, as several different explosions wouldbe needed in a series of events, to form the differentblankets to a single crater. instead of radial ridges, theelectric currents involved can form a radial system ofgrooves around the crater. these are a form of lichtenberg figure,machined out by the electric arc. in addition, the dynamics of theprocess allows for central peaks and craters of any size (you can'tdo that for impact craters), as well as circular rings inplace of the central peak.
when you have circular ringsin place of the central peak, these are called “peaked ringsâ€, and they usually occur in craterswith flat floors and vertical walls; and so, they probably have anedm origin rather than impact. for example, the crater meade on venusconsists of almost vertical walls, several concentric rings and flatfloor is about 175 miles across. this strongly suggestsan edm origin. some small crater chainscan be formed by impact. but the extensive systems on the moonand mars rules out any impact origin.
in addition, many craters in the chainsare connected by flat-floored grooves. the craters themselves usually have flatfloors and some of the small craters even have central peaks, and suchis impossible to form by impact. these characteristics also eliminate volcanismand only leave edm as their origin. indeed such machining can produce thisform of crater chain rather easily and there are some excellentexamples on mars and on the moon which parallelelectrical experiments. so, these crater chains areactually evidence of edm. we have noted the ability of electricaldischarges to produce flat-floored craters.
does this mean that allflat- floored craters on planets and moons areelectrical in nature? no, probably not. for example, there are someflat-floored craters on the moon which border the great plains, like archimedesand plato, around the mare imbrium. when their walls are examined, there's evidence of flying debrisfrom the formation of imbrium itself when the explosion happened, andit crashed through these walls. so, these craters were therebefore that great plain formed.
the material that now covers thatfloor has the same texture, color, and spectral composition as the materialmaking up the great imbrium plain. so, it seems that thisoriginally molten rock that formed the plain haspenetrated these craters, filled up the depressions, givingthem flat floors as a result. so, we need to be discerning as wehave a look at this surface issue. in summary, we asked barrysetterfield which features he feels are most reliably diagnostic fordistinguishing impact craters from those unequivocally associatedwith electrical discharge machining.
okay, if we startwith impact craters, any or all of the following featureswould indicate impact has occurred. you got your overturned rim layers,with inverted strata on the rim; you got a ray systemand/or radiating ridges; you have nickel-iron bodiesembedded under the rim; you have shocked quartz and/or anassociated iridium or osmiridium anomaly; and a concentration of mass, a mascon as itis sometimes called, associated with it. now for edm, any or all of thefollowing characteristics will determine if the craterhas an electric origin.
you've got your vertical walls and horizontalroom strata that are not a mirror image. you've got an ejecta blanketsystem of multiple layers; a central peak, if the crater is outsidethe accepted size range for impact; and then you have apeak ring system forming the appearance of concentric craterswith flat floors and scalloping of crater walls. so, all of these criteria wouldform the basis for determining which craters are formed byeither process, unless of course, new developments in both electric dischargemachining or geology come to prove otherwise. for continuous updates on spacenews from the electric universe
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